The ethics of Aristotle Essay Example for Free

The ethics of Aristotle Essay Philosophers live and encourage others to live according to the rules of practical wisdom. Aristotle, Immanuel Kant, and Emmanuel Levinas were three philosophers who sorted out various ethical approaches. They investigated complex human actions and theorized what is the ethical thing to do. For instance, Aristotle contemplated the aim of human life, Kant observed duty and obligation from respect for the law, and Levinas examined ones responsibility to the Other. These unique points of view offer different answers regarding the search for the good. In addition to their differences, these philosophers are bound together by similar ideas. For example, each of the philosophers believed in optimism they thought that all humans are naturally ethical. In addition, each of the philosophers believed in using reason to be ethical. They emphasized the concept of living well and acting well by using virtuous habits and good character to reach the good. Furthermore, they all believed in self actualization in other words, ethically being the best one can be. They all thought an ethical person must be rational and responsible for their actions. They proposed that each person has a duty towards others and society. Aristotle lived during the B.C. era and established the concept of teleological ethics. This means that ethics has a purpose or a reason. He stressed the concept of doctrine of the mean maintaining balance in ones actions. Additionally, he theorized the idea of developing virtuous habits to build good character as well as that happiness is the main goal of all human beings. He explained how reaching ones potential by living well and acting well will ultimately lead to happiness. Moreover, he stated one should base ones actions on reason and he introduced the concept that reason controls desire. Immanuel Kant was a philosopher who lived the majority his life in the 1700s. He believed that an individual should use God, freedom, and immortality to be able to pursue and attain the supreme good. He also believed in deontological ethics, meaning it is ones obligation and duty to do what is right. Kant said that an individual must use intellect, free will, and reason to carry out this duty. He is similar to Aristotle because likewise, he believed that it is ideal for all people to act in an ethical  manner by using reason. However, unlike Aristotle, Kant believed one must act ethically as an individual autonomy for the good of society. He said that one must use reason and free will to carry out ones duty and moral obligation to do good. He stressed the concept of not expecting to gain anything in return while performing ethical tasks even though one might not like it one should act ethically out of the goodness in ones heart. On the other hand, Aristotle believed one should act ethically as part of a community based on politics. He also expected a benefit in return, contrary to Kant. Aristotle said that it is ideal to achieve a reasonable means in ethics, and he expected to gain something like happiness for instance in return. Also, contrary to Aristotles theory, Kants theory proposes that it is not very possible to achieve the supreme good in ones lifetime. He suggested that humans must achieve this good in a life after death. This proves that their theories regarding how to achieve the supreme good differ considerably. Emmanuel Levinas was a Jewish philosopher of the 20th century. He observed that the West focused on the Unity of Beings, not the Hebrew infinity. The Hebrew Infinity focuses on uniqueness and singularity of things which gives them identity. Levinas based his ethics on this concept. Levinas believed one encounters the good or God in all individuals or in creation. He said one needs to recognize these traces, accept them, and respond to them. He talked about the thrill of astonishment, which is a face to face experience that touches one deeply. Additionally, he suggested that the face of the stranger (the Other) demands that you recognize it and provide it hospitality. Thus, the face becomes ethical. He had this whole idea of promoting freedom rather than limiting it. He believed that the face is a trace of God that refuses to use power. Instead, the face calls one to be responsible by humbly beckoning those that passes by. Kant also had similar theories as Levinas because both of them emphasized that God is necessary for a person to act ethically. In other words, they included God in their search for the good. Kant believed one cannot do this without God, whereas Levinas believed humans are motivated by God to do good. With the concept of the Other, Levinas suggested that humans have a responsibility to respond with caring and compassion. Similarly, Kant also believed in caring and  compassion because he believed in the Universal Law if it is an act that is good for everyone, then it is good for an individual. It is evident that Aristotle, Immanuel Kant, and Emmanuel Levinas were three philosophers who sorted out various ethical approaches that aided them in their search for the good. Despite the fact that they have several similar theories, each philosopher has many unique theories that will continue to help future generations learn to live ethically and to ultimately achieve the greater good.

The University Education: A Religious Experience :: University Education

The University Education: A Religious Experience If I wanted to do an over-view of my thoughts about the university being related to religion for a layman who doesn't understand anything beneath the surface, then my first paper would be a success. Putting myself in an educated person's position of having to read that as a college essay, I would be insulted. Of course this is a post-English 220 thought. I've opened up to find myself more since then. I'm not saying that have found my perfect style. I've found a new style in myself other than the "Official Style". I'm writing for you in a close version of the "O.S." because this is an explanation about my own writing and I feel that this is the best way to *explain*. Don't worry, by the end I'm sure that I'll have fallen away. I've taken a close look at this paper of mine entitled _The University Education: A Religious Experience_ and found that my thoughts about the metaphor haven't changed a lot. I'm the type of person who finds little religious quirks in everything, though (A result of: accepting evolution; seeing the Bible as a bunch of parables and tall tales - including Genesis and the entire New Testament; reading Don Delillo's _White Noise_ , Heinlein's _A Stranger in a Strange Land_, Baudelaire's "Voyage"; rebelling my over-religious, over-hypocritic mother; oh ya. Moliere and Chaucer; learning about different cultures and religions; etc., etc.). I like comparing people and their actions, myself included, to Christian rituals and events. When it comes to the university as a religion, this comparing multiplies because so many of us here take our education as a life or death matter. And I think it should be. Of course there are those who are hypocritic in the university life - don't worry they get a few second chances and are then abandoned. I'm on one of my second chances. Yes, I feel the same way about my metaphor as I did when I wrote this introduction paper. No, I don't like paper because if I were to truly put effort into the it now I would not have written it that way. My style is much different now (A result of this class and my new interest in fiction writing from Eng. 218). I like to lay things between the lines - let the reader work a little. I'm not a combination of Elliot and Pound, nor do I intend to be.

Silver and Test Tube

Copper-silver Nitrate Reaction Introduction In this experiment copper wire will be placed in a solution of silver nitrate. This single replacement reaction will produce a blue solution of copper II nitrate and solid silver. By weighing the reactants before the reaction, the mass of silver produced can be predicted. This theoretical yield can be compared to the actual yield of silver. Purpose Students will compare the theoretical mass of silver with the actual mass of silver from the single replacement reaction between copper and silver nitrate.Materials Copper wire stirring rod 18 x 150 mm test tube silver nitrate, AgN0350 mL graduated cylinder distilled water 100 mL or 250 mL beaker Procedure Day 1 1 . Obtain a 30 cm length of bare copper wire, stirring rod, and 18 x 150 mm test tube. coll the copper wire by wrapping It around a glass-stirring rod. stretch the coiled wire until It Is about 2 cm longer than the test tube. Leave wire tightly coiled near one end and stretched out and s traighten toward the other Weigh the wire and record it in the data table to the nearest 0. 01 grams. using weigh paper, weigh out about 1. 5 g of silver nitrate, AgN03. Record the measurement in data table to the nearest 0. 01 grams. (Caution: Be careful not to get any of the silver nitrate, solution or solid, on your skin or clothing. It will react with them. ) 3. Measure about 20 mL of distilled water In a graduated cylinder and pour It Into the test tube. Add the solid silver nitrate tothe water In the test tube. 4 Carefully move the stlrrlng rod up and down to dissolve the crystals and mix the solution, Take great care not to poke a holeIn the bottom of the test tube with the stirring rod. Rinse the stirring rod with a small amount ot distilled water into the test tube. Place the coiled wire in the silver nitrate solution with the closely coiled end at the bottom of the test tube. Set the test tube into a beaker. 6. Record observations during the next 15 minutes. 7. Set your la beled beaker in the designated area, allowing it to react overnight. Day 2 8. Weigh the 100 mL beaker. 9. Shake the crystals from the copper wire. using a wash bottle, rinse the wire Into he weighed 100 mL beaker. et the wire aside to dry. weigh the copper wire when

Advantages of Using Computers - 1197 Words

Advantages of Using Computers Computers obviously wouldn’t be as popular as they are now if they did not offer advantages over doing tasks manually. Some of these advantages are: Computers can perform calculations much more quickly and accurately than humans. For example, modern computers can perform hundreds of millions of calculations per second. Large amounts of data can be stored in a small amount of space. For example, hundreds of pages worth of text can be stored on a 31⠁„2inch floppy disk. Computers can work continuously and perform repetitive tasks well. Unlike their human counterparts, computers do not get bored or tired. Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-69700-2 - Information Technology for CSEC, Second†¦show more content†¦Computers have revolutionized businesses, relieving workers from the burden of calculating and record keeping with pen and paper. While there are a few holdouts and computers in certain businesses collect dust, the majority of businesses throughout the world use a computer in some capacity. Organization The organizational skills of companies have improved substantially since the 1970s and 1980s due to the use of computers. Years ago, most contact information between clients, including phone numbers and addresses for mailing lists, were kept in files or a Rolodex, which made searching for information time consuming. Today, customer information is easily accessible and updatable and this is far from the only organizational area that s been transformed by computers. Product information, inventory, and descriptions for sales companies are uploaded to computers and placed into databases or on the internet for easy access by customers. Business accounts and invoices are also kept on computers so that a customer service representative is only a few clicks away from aiding clients. Production The all important area of production has also been greatly impacted by computer technology. The viability of most businesses is linked to the ability to produce products quickly and effectively. Computers aid in this process in a number of ways: * They allow for companies to make models of products, such as cars,Show MoreRelatedAdvantages and Disadvantages of Using Computers. Summary1083 Words   |  5 PagesSummary introduction to computer Chapter 1 A meaning of computer A Computer is an electronic device, operating under the control of instructions stored in its own memory There are three process of computer 1. Collects data (input) 2. Processing 3. Produces information (output) The Components of a Computer A computer contains many electric, electronic, and mechanical components known as hardware. There are five type of the components of computer. 1.Input Devices isRead MoreKey Advantages Of Using A Network Over Standalone Computers1879 Words   |  8 PagesAccess a computer system or service remotely Networks 3 What is a network? How is a local area network (LAN) different from a wide area network (WAN)? A-3 A computer network is a network which allows computer to exchange data. A lan only covers small areas like schools, cafà ©, offices whereas WAN covers large geographical areas like cities, states, nations. 4 Describe the five main advantages of using a network over standalone computers. A-4 You can share files with all the other computers on the networkRead MoreWhat Are the Advantages and Disadvantages for Individuals and Society of the Reliance on Communicating Via Computers1004 Words   |  5 PagesWhat are the advantages and disadvantages for individuals and society of the reliance on communicating via computers? (Discussion Essay) Introduction: In today’s world, communication is one of the key elements that people across the world can connect with one another. The rise of the use of computer has been due to technological advancements such as the creation of email and websites such as Facebook and Twitter. A touch of the mouse can instantly connect one person from one side of the worldRead MoreComputer1636 Words   |  7 Pagesâ€Å"Disadvantages and Advantages of Computer† A Research Paper Presented to Prof. Hans Uy In partial Fulfillment of the Requirements in English IV By: Junaira R. Jamal First Year College March 2013 ACKNOWLEGDMENT I express my deepest gratitude to my family especially my mother who helps me with the grammar, invaluable guidance and blessings. I am very grateful to my English teacher Sir Han Uy for providing us with an environment to complete this project. I  would  like  to  thank  myRead MoreCloud Computing : Is It Just Using Someone Else s Server?1418 Words   |  6 Pagesjust using someone else’s server. I now understand what that sign means. Most people do not know exactly what cloud computing means, honestly until now I really didn’t understand the entire concept. There is no imaginary cloud hanging in the sky that holds all our information. Cloud computing has its place in a business; there are various factors that must be evaluated when considering the use of this method data storage. A business should determine the condition of their existing computer systemRead MoreEssay on ICT and Education1216 Words   |  5 Pagestaught to use computers early on so as they progress into secondary, further and higher education, they are then adept in utilising applications software. Consequently, ICT is used in virtually all of the subjects that the students are taught, whether it be English, maths, modern foreign languages, etc. ICT in the past In the early 1980’s Britain introduced computers to schools. Due to inadequate investment by the government, every school was only provided with one computer. Many of the schoolsRead MoreThe Pros and Cons of Using Information Technology in Teaching589 Words   |  3 PagesThe Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Information Technology in Teaching The most obvious advantage of using information technology in teaching and learning is the flexibility for learners to get access to computers. Now that computers have become common, learners can get access to the Internet and engage in study at any time, any place and at their own pace. This is the reason why distance learning has become so common nowadays. Another advantage of information technology is itsRead MoreComputerized vs. Manual Accounting1630 Words   |  7 Pagessheet, income statement, Owner’s equity and statement of cash flow. This procedure can be obtained either manually using pens and papers or by computer using spread sheets software like MS Excel or MS Access. Before the computer was invented, accountants used several devices for calculating the figures involved in the transactions like the abacus for instance. However, after the computer was invented, they should use it completely for the whole process in replacement of hard papers. I. Manual Accounting Read MoreAdam Smith and David Ricardo Had More Similarities Than Differences in Their Ideas623 Words   |  3 Pageshowever, their opinion showed dissentience with absolute advantage and comparative advantage. Division of labor is the most basic building-block in their law. Smith argued that specializing and dividing tasks increased output dramatically. Furthermore, division of labor can take place among towns, not just among worker in a factory. In this manner, some countries or towns come to develop their strengths. When they trade their own advantage with others, the general good grow in both parties. InRead MoreDell : A Global Provider Of It Solutions And Services With Multiple Years950 Words   |  4 PagesDell has created a leading cost structure, positive relationships with its customers, and has come to show an increasing amount of differentiation. If you would have gotten into the computer manufacturing industry when Dell did in the 1980’s it would have been a much more attractive industry. Since the Personal Computer was new in the 1980s you didn’t have to worry about buyers having knowledge of the products like they do today. Back then the company would have power over the suppliers since there

Prejudice, Stereotyping, and Discrimination Essay

Most people have experienced prejudice, stereotyping, or discrimination at some time in his or her life. There is no doubt social discrimination, prejudice, and hostility still create serious problems and challenges, even in today’s apparently more and more individualized and â€Å"enlightened† society. This paper will discuss prejudice, stereotypes, and discrimination in the context of social psychology; what the consequences of stereotyping and discrimination are; and strategies to improve attitudes, judgments, and behaviors. Social psychologists recognize prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination â€Å"by focusing on whether they involve feelings (affect), cognition, or behaviors.† (Feenstra, 6.1 Prejudice, stereotypes, and†¦show more content†¦Social identities depend on the groups to which people belong. Any group a person belongs to is an ingroup, and those that they do not belong to are considered an outgroup. Social cognitive research sug gests that outgroup discrimination and prejudice are a result of basic and functional cognitive processes such as categorization and stereotyping. â€Å"Our prejudice and stereotypes come not only from the way our systems process information but also from the world around us. Societal origins of prejudice involve the norms in the world around us, the competition that exists between groups, and the social inequalities that exist in the world. Ingroup favoritism leads to unequal treatment of those we have categorized as in the outgroup. And outgroup homogeneity bias blinds us to the differences within the outgroup.† (Feenstra, 6.1 Social Cognitive origins of prejudice and stereotypes, para 2). â€Å"Immediate social contexts do shape individual responses to individual outgroup members. This exemplifies a social psychological analysis, that is, how actual, imagined, or implied other people influence and individual’s stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination.† (Fiske, 2000, P. 303). Categories help us deal with large amounts of information. They make it possible for us to process more information and save cognitive energy, so we use categories copiously. â€Å"ThatShow MoreRelatedPrejudice, Stereotyping and Discrimination in Mauritius4123 Words   |  17 PagesPrejudice, Stereotyping and Discrimination in the Mauritian Society GOOSKHAN Souhaylah 2013 MAURITIUS Prejudice, Stereotyping and Discrimination in the Mauritian Society Table of Contents Mauritius as a Multi-ethnic Island .......................................................................................................... 3 Prejudice ................................................................................................................................................. 4 1. 2.Read MorePrejudice, Stereotyping and Discrimination on the Web991 Words   |  4 PagesPrejudice, Stereotyping and discrimination on the Web People think that racism and discrimination doesn’t exist anymore, but surprisingly they do; both existed throughout human history. Discrimination may be defined as a negative, harmful behaviour toward people based on their group membership. Whereas prejudice which is an opinion rather than a fact; is a negative attitude toward members of a group, that is often very strongly held. Stereotypes are individuals beliefs that members of aRead MoreStereotyping, Discrimination and Prejudice in the Media1553 Words   |  7 Pagesmajor role in this movie, seen as a negative aspect in the childrens attitudes and mentalities. Racism is defined as negative behaviour on an incorrect assumption that one race is inherently superior to others. This is one of the many forms of discrimination which is defined as unfair actions directed against people based on their race, gender, ethnicity, nationality, language, faith, or sexual orientation. Throughout the movie, there are many examples o f racism. Basically, the students going to thatRead MoreHow Is Discrimination Different from Prejudice and Stereotyping?629 Words   |  3 Pages |Definition | |Discrimination |The denial of opportunities and equal rights to individuals and groups because of prejudice | | |or for other arbitrary reasons | |Institutional discrimination |A denial of opportunities and equal rights to individuals or groups, resulting from the | Read MoreA Social Psychological View Of The Help. The Movie, The1423 Words   |  6 Pagesthese women fought racism and prejudice by becoming unified with one another. This paper will address how prejudice, discrimination, stereotyping, and inequality affect the characters and their relationships in the story. Prejudice Prejudice is defined as â€Å"negative feelings toward persons based on their membership in certain groups† (Kassin, Fein, Markus, 2014). There are several examples of racial prejudice within the movie, but the most interesting display of prejudice comes between women of theRead MoreStereotyping : Can We Prevent Stereotypes?1557 Words   |  7 PagesStereotyping is one of the few activities that must be prevented at all costs, due to the fact that it brews rage and hatred amongst the people in our daily society. First things first, Stereotyping is basically a belief of a certain group of people, for example, all African-Americans are excellent in sport activities. Stereotype is similar, but not the same, to prejudice, the feeling of a person based off of their social status , and discrimination, the action of treating others different basedRead MoreSterotyping in To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee Essay1093 Words   |  5 PagesTopic 1: Stereotyping. The novel, To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee is based on the experiences of one girl, Scout, growing up in Maycomb, Alabama in the 1930s. The novel explains some conflicts in Scout’s life. Scout, the main character, learns that things are not always morally correct and is confronted with the reality of prejudice and stereotyping. Scout struggles with understanding the prejudice and stereotyping she witnesses. Atticus Finch, Scouts father, with his strongly held convictionsRead MoreEth 125 Work Sheet Essay example633 Words   |  3 PagesProgram Material Discrimination Worksheet Write a 100- to 200-word response to each of the following questions. Provide citations for all the sources you use. †¢ What is discrimination? How is discrimination different from prejudice and stereotyping? †¢ What are the causes of discrimination? †¢ How is discrimination faced by one identity group (race, ethnicity, religious beliefs, gender, sexual orientation, age, or disability) the same as discrimination faced by anotherRead MoreDiscrimination : Discrimination And Discrimination947 Words   |  4 Pages Discrimination is an action or practice that excludes disadvantages or merely differentiates between individuals on the basis of some ascribed or perceived trait. Discrimination can be caused by stereotyping and prejudice. Stereotyping is a widely fixed and oversimplified image or idea of a particular type of person. Prejudice is a preconceived opinion that is not based on a reason or an actual experience. Some groups that are more likely to be discriminated against are; women, ethnic minoritiesRead MoreAppedix C673 Words   |  3 Pages|Definition | |Discrimination |The unjust or prejudicial treatment of different categories of people or things, esp. on the| | |grounds of race, age, or sex. | |Institutional discrimination |Unfair prejudice against individuals as a result of the way an organization works or | |

Managerial Economics And Management Decisions By C. M. Birch

Introduction According to Managerial Economics and Management Decisions by C. M. Birch, Managerial Economics deals with understanding both internal and external factors within Micro- and Macro-economics. A company must be aware of not only their own sustainable capabilities, but also perform environmental scans to detect competitors and economic conditions. In the case of Samsung, many of these global factors played a substantial role in deciding the survivability rate of the company from succeeding or declaring bankruptcy. This paper will serve as a means to understand Samsung’s corporate orientation such as culture, strategy, structure, organizational leadership, ethical programs, and associated risks. In addition, to analyzing past decisions and identify new strategies to improve Samsung’s corporate function. The South Korean giant, Samsung, is known as a renowned manufacturer for a multitude of high quality products, ranging from home appliances (e.g., refrigerators , microwaves, washing machines, etc.) to entertainment-based appliances (e.g., televisions, tablets, phones, etc.) demonstrating a wide market strategy across a variety of differentiated segments. Their ability to produce additional products such as memory processors, graphic cards, and more, has also led them to become suppliers for many companies including other competitors such as Apple and Sony, leading to their overall sustainability. With the introduction of their new CEO Yun Jong Yong in 1996, YongShow MoreRelatedcafes monte bianco case analysis4234 Words   |  17 Pagesï » ¿ MANAGERIAL ACCOUNTING FOR DECISION MAKING AMIS 823 – Spring 2008 Course Syllabus INSTRUCTOR: Prakash R. 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JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. ForRead Moreâ€Å"Implicit† and â€Å"Explicit† Csr: a Conceptual Framework for a Comparative Understanding of Corporate Social Responsibility13330 Words   |  54 PagesAcademy of Management Review 2008, Vol. 33, No. 2, 404–424. â€Å"IMPLICIT† AND â€Å"EXPLICIT† CSR: A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR A COMPARATIVE UNDERSTANDING OF CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY DIRK MATTEN York University, Toronto JEREMY MOON University of Nottingham We address the question of how and why corporate social responsibility (CSR) differs among countries and how and why it changes. Applying two schools of thought in institutional theory, we conceptualize, first, the differences between CSR in theRead MoreManagement Course: Mba−10 General Management215330 Words   |  862 PagesManagement Course: MBA−10 General Management California College for Health Sciences MBA Program McGraw-Hill/Irwin abc McGraw−Hill Primis ISBN: 0−390−58539−4 Text: Effective Behavior in Organizations, Seventh Edition Cohen Harvard Business Review Finance Articles The Power of Management Capital Feigenbaum−Feigenbaum International Management, Sixth Edition Hodgetts−Luthans−Doh Contemporary Management, Fourth Edition Jones−George Driving Shareholder Value Morin−Jarrell LeadershipRead MoreSelf Service28523 Words   |  115 PagesCOMPARATIVE ANALYSIS by Gregory E. Opara-Nadi has been approved May 2005 APPROVED: JIM MIRABELLA, D.B.A., Faculty Mentor and Chair ALISA MOSLEY, Ph.D, Committee Member NORBERTO CRUZ, Ed.D., Independent Reviewer DAL DIDIA, Ph.D, Visiting Professor DELLROY BIRCH, Peer Learner ACCEPTED AND SIGNED: JIM MIRABELLA, D.B.A. Kurt Linberg, Ph.D. Executive Director, School of Business Abstract Customers want fast checkout systems. Retailers are always searching for ways to improve store checkout systems. This studyRead MoreStrategic Business Management: a Case Study of Travelex7315 Words   |  30 Pages 1 Strategic Business Management: A Case Study of Travelex Module project 21st Century Business Author: Date: Course: Christian Jabbour 27 September 2003 University of Liverpool †¢ KIT-MBA-CB 030821 SBM: Travelex 2 Table of Contents Title Page†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Table of Contents†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦... Introduction†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Company Profile†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Chapter I: Internal Analysis of Travelex†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Human Resource Management†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. TechnologicalRead MoreDeveloping Management Skills404131 Words   |  1617 Pagesis an online assessment and prep aration solution for courses in Principles of Management, Human Resources, Strategy, and Organizational Behavior that helps you actively study and prepare material for class. Chapter-by-chapter activities, including built-in pretests and posttests, focus on what you need to learn and to review in order to succeed. Visit www.mymanagementlab.com to learn more. DEVELOPING MANAGEMENT SKILLS EIGHTH EDITION David A. Whetten BRIGHAM YOUNG UNIVERSITY Kim S.Read MoreEssay on Comm 393 Case Briefs12768 Words   |  52 Pagesdecided not to select him. Liebmann challenged the decision, as well as CFAO 20-53 (an enactment for which the decision was based upon) under s. 15 of the Charter. Issues: 1. Should the court consider the constitutionality of CFAO 20-53? 2. Does the Charter apply to the decision not to appoint Liebmann? 3. Were Liebmann’s equality rights under s. 15 of the Charter infringed? 4. Could infringement be justified under s. 1 of the Charter? Decisions: 1. The court should not consider the constitutionality

AIDS Immunology Essay Example For Students

AIDS Immunology Essay The Immunology of Aids Introduction Although HIV was first identified in 1983,studies of previously stored blood samples indicate that the virus entered theU.S. population sometime in the late 1970s. Worldwide, an estimated 27.9 millionpeople had become HIV-infected through mid-1996, and 7.7 million had developedAIDS, according to the World Health Organization (WHO). AIDS is a disease of theimmune system, and is caused by Human Immuno deficiency Virus (HIV). HIV targetsand infects T-helper cells and macrophages. After infection, replication of thevirus occurs within the T-helper cells. The cells are lysed and the new virusesare released to infect more T-helper cells. The course of the disease results inthe production of massive numbers of virus (1 billion/day) over the full courseof the disease. The T- helper cells are infected, and rapidly destroyed both byvirus and by cytotoxic T cells. T-helper cells are replaced with nearly abillion produced per day. Over many years (average may be 10), the T-helper cellpopulation is depleted and the body loses its ability to mount an immuneresponse against infections. Thus, we mount a very strong immune responseagainst the virus for a long time, but the virus is produced at a very high rateand ultimately overcomes the ability of the immune system to respond. Since HIVbelongs to a class of viruses called retroviruses, it has genes composed ofribonucleic acid (RNA) molecules. Like all viruses, HIV can replicate onlyinside host cells, commandeering the cells machinery to reproduce. However,only HIV and other retroviruses, once inside a cell, use an enzyme calledreverse transcriptase to convert their RNA into DNA, which can be incorporatedinto the host cells genes. HIV belongs to a subgroup of retroviruses known aslenti-viruses, or slow viruses. The course of infection with theseviruses is characterized by a long interval, up to 12 years or more, betweeninitial infection and the onset of serious symptoms. Like HIV in humans, t hereare animal viruses that primarily infect the immune system cells, often causingimmuno-deficiency and AIDS-like symptoms. Scientists use these and other virusesand their animal hosts as models of HIV disease. The CDC currently defines AIDSwhen one of 25 conditions indicative of severe immuno-suppression associatedwith HIV infection, such as Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (PCP) is present, orHIV infection in an individual with a CD4+ T cell count less than 200 cells percubic millimeter (mm3) of blood. However, the question that now remains to beanswered is How does HIV effectively overcome the human immune system? In thispaper I will try to answer this question. In the first chapter I will explainhow HIV is transmitted and what its life cycle looks like. This in order toincrease the understanding of how the virus operates. It can be seen as anintroductory chapter to the main body of the paper, chapter 2. In the secondchapter the specific interactions between the virus and the huma n immune systemwill be discussed and shown why its is so threatening. In the last chapter Iwill deal with certain promising treatments against AIDS. Chapter 1 TheTransmission of HIV Among adults, HIV is spread most commonly during sexualintercourse with an infected partner. During sex, the virus can enter the bodythrough the mucosal linings of the vagina, vulva, penis, rectum or, very rarely,via the mouth. The likelihood of transmission is increased by factors that maydamage these linings, especially other sexually transmitted diseases that causeulcers or inflammation. Research suggests that immune system cells calleddendritic cells, which reside in the mucosa, may begin the infection processafter sexual exposure by binding to and carrying the virus from the site ofinfection to the lymph nodes where other cells of the immune system becomeinfected. HIV also can be transmitted by contact with infected blood, most oftenby the sharing of drug needles or syringes contaminated with minute quantitiesof blood containing the virus. The risk of acquiring HIV from blood transfusionsis now extremely small in Western countries, as all blood products in thesecountries are screened routinely for evidence of the virus. Almost allHIV-infected children acquire the virus from their mothers before or duringbirth. The anatomy of HIV HIV has a diameter of 1/10,000 of a millimeter and isspherical in shape. The outer coat of the virus, known as the viral envelope, iscomposed of lipid bi-layer, taken from the membrane of a human cell when a newlyformed virus particle buds from the cell. Embedded in the viral envelope areproteins from the host cell, as well as 72 copies (on average) of a complex HIVprotein that protrudes from the envelope surface. This protein, known as Env,consists of a cap made of three or four molecules called glycoprotein (gp) 120,and a stem consisting of three or four gp41 molecules that anchor the structurein the viral envelope. Within the envelope of a mature HI V particle is abullet-shaped core or capsid, made of 2000 copies of another viral protein, p24. The capsid surrounds two single strands of HIV RNA, each of which has a copy ofthe viruss nine genes. Three of these, gag, pol and env, contain informationneeded to make structural proteins for new virus particles. The env gene, forexample, codes for a protein called gp160 that is broken down by a viral enzymeto form gp120 and gp41, the components of Env. Three regulatory genes, tat, revand nef, and three auxiliary genes, vif, vpr and vpu, that contain theinformation necessary for the production of proteins that control the ability ofHIV to infect a cell, produce new copies of virus or cause disease. The proteinencoded by nef, for instance, appears necessary for the virus to replicateefficiently, and the vpu-encoded protein influences the release of new virusparticles from infected cells. The Life Cycle of HIV When HIV encounters itstarget cell, the external glycoprotein portion of the viral envelope (GP120)binds with high affinity to the extra cellular component of the receptor prot einCD 4, present on helper lymphocytes(Helper T cells). The membrane portion of theviral envelope fuses to the lymphocyte membrane and the virus is expelled intothe cell. Then the reverse transcriptase of the virus copies the RNA into DNA. Once the DNA is integrated into the host cell genome, the presence of HIV hasbecome a permanent part of the lymphocyte (Helper T). The viral productionproceeds through a complex set of highly regulated steps. First, messenger RNAof the virus and viral proteins are produced. Proteins are then modified by aviral protease to become mature viral proteins. Current efforts at anti-viraltherapy involve the use of reverse transcriptase inhibitors (notably AZT) andnewly developed inhibitors of the viral protease. AZT Chapter 2 The ImmuneSystem and HIV The bodys health is defended by the immune system. Lymphocytes(B cells and T cells) protect the body from germs such as viruses,bacteria, parasites, and fungi. When germs are detected, B cells and T cells areactivated to defend the body. This process is hindered in the case of theacquired immuno-deficiency syndrome (AIDS). AIDS is a disease in which thebodys immune system breaks down. AIDS is caused by the human immuno-deficiencyvirus (HIV). Whe n HIV enters the body, it infects the CD4+ T cells, where thevirus grows. The virus kills these cells slowly. As more and more of the T cellsdie, the bodys ability to fight infection weakens. A person with HIV infectionmay remain healthy for many years. People with HIV infection are said to haveAIDS when they are sick with serious illnesses and infections that can occurwith HIV. The illnesses tend to occur late in HIV infection, when only 200 Tcells per cubic millimeter remain. One reason HIV is unique is that despite thebodys aggressive immune responses, which are sufficient to clear most viralinfections, some HIV invariably escapes. One explanation is that the immunesystems best soldiers in the fight against HIV-certain subsets of killer Tcells- multiply rapidly following initial HIV infection and kill manyHIV-infected cells, but then appear to exhaust themselves and disappear,allowing HIV to escape and continue replication. Additionally, in the few weeksthat they are detectable, these specific cells appear to accumulate in thebloodstream rather than in the lymph nodes, where most HIV is sequestered. ViralVariation Another reason for the uniqueness of HIV are the dynamics of HIVreplication. They also have profound implications for the generation of geneticdiversity of HIV quasispecies in individual patients. Virus isolates obtainedfrom patients at the time of initial infection show little geneticheterogeneity. Over time, however, the population of viruses circulating in anindividual patient becomes increasingly diverse. The rapid replication kineticsand high mutation rate of HIV reverse transcriptase drive the diversification ofthe HIV quasispecies in response to selective pressure from the host immuneresponse. The rapid turnover of HIV also provides the ideal mechanism forproducing variants with mutations that confer drug resistance, or permit escapefrom immunological control of HIV infection. When drugs that inhibit HIV-1replication are partially or inappr opriately administered, the resultingevolutionary pressure selects for the emergence of resistant strains. In thecase of lamivudine (3TC) or nevirapine, a single nucleotide change in the HIV-1RT gene is sufficient to produce high-level resistance. The entire viruspopulation evolves from wild-type to resistant in a matter of weeks when thesedrugs are given as single agents. Little or no viral variation emerges inpatients with complete suppression of plasma HIV-1 RNA in response to potentcombination therapy. The Role of Immune Activation in HIV Disease During HIVinfection, however, the immune system may be chronically activated, withnegative consequences. For HIV replication and spread are much more efficient inactivated CD4+ cells. Chronic immune system activation during HIV disease mayalso result in a massive stimulation of a persons B cells, impairing theability of these cells to make antibodies against other pathogens. Chronicimmune activation also can result in apoptosis, and an increased production ofcytokines that may not only increase HIV replication but also have otherdeleterious effects. Increased levels of TNF-alpha , for example, may be atleast partly responsible for the severe weight loss or wasting syndrome seen inmany HIV-infected individuals. The persistence of HIV and HIV replicationprobably plays an important role in the chronic state of immune activation seenin HIV-infected people. In addition, researchers have shown that infections withother organisms activate immune system cells and increase production of thevirus in HIV-infected people. Chronic immune activation due to persistentinfections, or the cumulative effects of multiple episodes of immune activationand bursts of virus production, likely contribute to the progression of HIVdisease. The Role of CD8+ T Cells CD8+ T cells are important in the immuneresponse to HIV during the acute infection and the clinically latent stage ofdisease. These cells attack and kill infected cells that are pr oducing virus. Manifest Destiny EssayThey found that even when HIV does not enter a cell, proteins in the outerenvelope of the virus can bind to CCR5 receptor on the cells surface andinitiate a biochemical cascade that sends a signal to the cells interior. Thissignaling process may activate the cell, making it more vulnerable to HIVinfection. It also may cause cells to migrate to sites of HIV replication,thereby increasing their vulnerability to infection. If the cell is alreadyinfected with HIV, activation may boost the production of the virus. HIVgenerally requires two receptors (as discussed in The Role of CD8+ T Cells) toenter a target cell: CD4, and either CCR5 or CXCR4, depending on the strain ofvirus. The strains of HIV most commonly seen early in HIV disease, known asmacrophage-tropic (M-tropic) viruses, use CD4 and CCR5 for cell entry. Manystrains of the simian immuno-deficiency virus (SIV), a cousin of HIV thatinfects non-human primates such as monkeys, also use these receptors forcellu lar entry. Researchers found that envelope proteins from four differentM-tropic HIV strains and one M-tropic SIV strain induced a signal through CCR5that caused cells to migrate in culture. In contrast, envelope proteins fromother strains of the viruses, known as T-cell tropic (T-tropic) strains, did notcause signaling. Chapter 3 Immunological Treatments for HIV/AIDS HRG 214: Ajoint effort between scientists and industry has resulted in the development ofa new drug to treat patients in the advanced stages of AIDS. Dr. Frank Gelder,director of Immuno-diagnostic Testing Laboratories, Department of Surgery atLouisiana State University Medical Center in Shreveport, Louisiana, invented thedrug, HRG214. HRG214 is formulated as an immuno-chemically-engineered group ofantibodies that neutralize and inactivate essential steps in the life cycle ofHIV. HRG214 is the first immunology based pharmaceutical to show successfultreatment of HIV infection. When HRG214 is used in conjunction with twoad ditional drugs, one to initiate and one to control cytokine pathways, (thechemical signals by which cells communicate). CD8 lymphocytes and other cells,which fight infection, (present but not functioning normally in AIDS patients),are rapidly restored to normal function. This drug regime opens new therapeuticoptions for the care of HIV patients, including those in advanced stages ofAIDS. In addition, CD4 and CD8 lymphocyte numbers have statistically increased,and marked clinical improvements have been observed in all patients receivingtreatment with HRG214. These improvements include increase in appetite andstamina, as well as marked improvements in AIDS-related conditions such aschronic fatigue syndrome, diarrhea, malabsorption, and other HIV-relateddiseases. Cytolin Unlike current AIDS drugs, which attack HIV directly, Cytolinwould help the bodys immune system by correcting the immune systemsself-destruct mechanism that is triggered by an HIV infection. Cytolin is amonoclonal anti body designed to prevent one part of the immune system-aparticular type of killer CD8 cells-from attacking another part-CD4cells, the destruction of which results in AIDS. Cytolin is designed to protectthe immune systems natural defenses while antiviral drugs take the offensiveagainst HIV. Cytolin is to be given in a doctors office, most often as anadjunct to a combination of antiviral drugs. Combinations, orcocktails, of antiviral drugs have helped some patientssignificantly reduce the level of their HIV infection, improving their health. However, the side effects of antiviral drugs can be so significant that at least15 percent of patients cannot take them. Even some patients who can tolerateantiviral therapy have continued to face declining health. Following injectionwith Cytolin, the patients demonstrated significantly reduced levels of HIVinfection and clinical signs of immune system recovery, including increasedlevels of disease fighting CD4 cells. Conclusion First of all, HIV attacks thevery cells that are responsible for the defense of the human body againstinvaders, the CD4+ T cells. However, HIV also targets other immune system cellswith CD4 on their surface. Not only are HIV replication and the spread of thevirus more efficient in activated cells, but chronic immune activation duringHIV disease may result in a massive stimulation of a persons B cells, impairingthe ability of these cells to make antibodies against other pathogens. Chronicimmune activation also can result in a form of cellular suicide known asa poptosis, and in the increased production of signaling molecules calledcytokines that can themselves increase HIV replication. This strategy shows thatHIV does not to invade the CD4+ cells to inflict damage to the immune system. The chronic immune activation not only impairs the ability of B cells to makepathogens against other cells, but it also results in apoptosis, and anincreased production of cytokines that may not only increase the HIV replicationbut also have other deleterious effects, such as the severe weight loss causedby increased levels of TNF-alpha. Now, finally researchers have found a twopotentially successful immunological treatments, HRG 214 and Cytolin. HRG 214neutralizes and inactivates essential steps in the replication cycle of HIV. Cytolin helps the immune system by correcting its self-destruct mechanism thatis triggered by an HIV infection. BibliographyPantaleo G, The qualitative nature of the primary immune response to HIVinfection is a prognosticator of disease progression independent of the initiallevel of plasma viremia. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1997. http://camelot.emmes.com/avctn/index.htm http://www.niaid.nih.gov/research/daids.htm Kostirkis LG, Huang Y, Moore JP,et al. 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